Small Capitals, Ligatures, Diphthongs, and Logotypes
Small caps are specially designed capitals. They are smaller than capitals, but larger than the x-height of the lowercase, yet possess the same weight as them. Because they are close to the same size as the lowercase letters, and share the same weight, they are preferred in bodies of text because they are less demanding.
Ligatures are the combo characters that eliminate the unsightly overlap of neighboring letters. Logotypes are combo characters that are less noticeable. Best example of a logotype is an ampersand. It represents the Latin word, "et", which means "and". "&" is a combination of "e" and "t". Diphthongs are letter combinations to help the reader with the pronunciation of the word.
Modular
Modular typefaces were designed to accommodate the printers of those days. These typefaces are incredibly simple and basic in terms of design. Irregular spacing between letters is common due to the nature of the modular method.
The First Capitals
The first capitals can be accredited to Ancient Rome. Using a square base and other geometric shapes to guide them, Romans would then carve the letters into stone. This gives them the classic weight and serif that we all recognize today. But since it was composed of only capitals, relied on a square base system, and several letters weren't introduced to the alphabet yet, it made it nearly impossible to add variation to the typeface.
L'histoire se répète
With advancement of technology, legibility of the text became increasingly important. Helvetica was introduced in the 50s, a highly popular sans serif font. Although it is a popular font, it is was labeled as "cold". Typographers began to focus on the negative space and the balance of the letter space and the page space. Through such focus, Adrian Frutiger created a typeface with more expression for the Charles de Gaulle airport. This font later became known as Frutiger. Frutiger and several other young designers released fonts that harked back to the first capitals of Rome.
The Lowercase Letter
There were no lowercase letters in Roman type, therefor there were no real examples to look to or modify. But with the quill, we start to see the development of lowercase letters. Lowercase letters are typically thinner than capitals. While only slightly thinner than their counterparts, this contrast still gives the emphasis to the capital. This contrast between capital and lowercase letters can be seen in serif fonts, as well as sans serif fonts.
Classification
Each letter can be grouped based on its construction and form. Both capitals and lowercase have their own break down of classification.
What you Measure
Type is designed using a mixture of guides and geometric shapes. Over the centuries, type design has been broken down into an art. The letter shape in contrast to other letters of the typeface, as well as the distance between each letter, has been mathematically figured out. Spacing is important for each letter to have the space it needs to read, but the spaces only have to appear the same. The letters need to be close enough together to be easily read, but not too close. The white space is also just as important as the letter itself. As Fred Smeijers wrote, "Its a balance between black and white." The form of the letter is important for readers, because it shouldn't be distracting from the content. Antique Olive is a typeface that is either hated or loved. It breaks rules, but maintains incredible legibility. In comparison to its competition, its x-height is significantly larger. This make the ascenders and descenders shorter, and compensation in the lack of room leads to the shifting of the crossbar of the "f".
Digital Aesthetics
In the digital age, it has become increasingly easier to create your own "digital language". Creating ones own publication, or form of communication, or alphabet now has no limits. Two movements had their impact on design and type. The first was a classic movement, where refinements can be seen. The other came in the 90s, when people were free-handing type and teaching themselves to design.
Punk and Graffiti
In due time, graffiti began to become a form of communication and self expression. Recognized by designers for its free form and use of color, it became an inspiration to redefining type as we know it. Experimentation began, and typefaces were being mixed up and combined. A total disregard for function became a mindset in several designers. Photocopying, cutting and pasting, and many other ways to make type for expressive became popular methods of experimentation.
The Magazine
More and more artists and designers were able to create magazines. These forms of expression allowed for the experimentation of type, as well as a way to communicate new and radical ideas. As these independent magazines began showing up, designers began to publish and share their new and strange compositions, frankenstein typefaces, and newfound creativity.
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